Wireless Security Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Wireless Security - Research Paper Example On the other hand, there are countless security and privacy issues also emerging in wireless networking environments. Though, the new technologies require more and more high level application of wireless communication networks, but such implementations are being established without giving significant concentration to privacy and security related issues. Consequently, the majority of wireless networks around the world are in danger regarding security and safety. Thus, there are a lot of chances that someone with appropriate equipment could be able to spy network traffic. In this scenario, they can get access to users’ passwords and other data (Gerkis, 2006; The State University of New Jersey, 2006). In addition, these security issues and attacks are not immediately theoretical. Additionally, techniques and tools to tap near wireless networks are extensively accessible, even for palmtop devices (Gerkis, 2006; The State University of New Jersey, 2006). In this situation there is vital need for implementing wireless security. Wireless security management has turned out to be a hot issue in literature. This paper presents a detailed analysis of wireless security related issues and their management. This research will analyze some of the important aspects of wireless security, main challenges and possible mitigation techniques. TECHNOLOGY INVOLVED IN WIRELESS NETWORKS Consider the fact that users of WLAN (wireless local area network) are able to travel along with their laptop computers and other devices from one location to another inside their offices or houses without breaking the link with the network. Thus, many corporations and general public at the present think that wireless communication based devices are very useful, efficient, and easy to operate. On the other hand, personal networks based on wireless technology help users receive and distribute data, as well as software applications, by making use of network systems and other users of the network with well-matched devices, without establishing a connection to printer cables and other secondary device links. In fact, with wireless networking users of small PDA, hand-held devices and cell phones can effectively coordinate data and information among PDAs and personal computers, as well as are able to effectively make use of internet based services l ike that web browsing, email and internet access. In addition, wireless communications can help individuals and business firms reduce their networking or wiring costs (Radack, 2011; Gerkis, 2006; css-security, 2010). In this scenario, Information Technology Laboratory established by NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology), presents various standards and measures which can be adopted to enhance safety and security of wireless communication networks. Additionally, National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication (SP) 800-48,  Wireless Network Security, 802.11, Bluetooth, and Hand-held Devices, whose authors were Les Owens and Tom Karygiannis, outlines 3 main and fundamental aspects of wireless security: (Radack, 2011; Ge

W 10 Employment Impact-Discussion- environmental Essay

W 10 Employment Impact-Discussion- environmental - Essay Example n that arises is whether environmental conservation will result in net loss or gain or no change in the total number of jobs creation in a given country, Environmental improvement deals with both technological as well as green environment. Therefore, when technological environment improvement, it proportionally lowers the chances of job creation as in; it does replace human manual work to machine era. As a result, this eliminates the possibility of providing a wide spectrum for human job environment. On the contrary, when green environment is improved, it in returns gives rise to jobs in any country. For instance, if high carbon economy is lowered to the low-carbon economy, this will alternatively increase the chances of having more jobs. Evidently, the research done by â€Å"national environmental program† has it that, if green environment is improved it will rise the number of jobs. Statistically,15 to 60n million of jobs will be created if green environment is emphasized, in the near future as says Juan Somavia. In conclusion, basing to the environment improvement (whether technological or green environment) leads to either net gain in a job or net loss. Technological improvement does replace human manual work to machine work hence discouraging net total job gain. On the other hand, green environment improvement encourages net total gain in job creation in any country. To curb it all, I do concur that gain, loss or stagnation of total jobs in a country and the job, is based on the specific environmental

The Plight of Urban Public Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Plight of Urban Public Education - Essay Example Public schools in the urban areas are grossly understaffed, and lack basic educational equipment that would put the quality of their education at par with other schools. Though deplorable conditions and poor educational standards exist throughout public schools, the predicament is most severe in inner-cities where the populations are mostly made up of minority ethnic groups.2 Urban public schools are allocated fewer resources than suburban schools and lack basic equipment such as laboratories, sanatoria and computers. As a result of this underfunding, urban schools are characterized by high frequencies of school dropouts, low numbers of students graduating, poor performance in standardized examinations, and low academic prospects from the students. Though a big portion of the problem in urban public schools can be blamed on underfunding, there are other societal factors that play a role in the degraded nature of urban public education.3 These problems include lack of jobs, lack of decent housing, lack of proper healthcare, and high crime rates and ethnic stereotypes. In addition, the levels of motivation among teachers and parents is often low in these public urban schools.4 The gravity of the problem is multiplied by the ethnic diversity in urban areas and, therefore, necessity for these schools to offer bilingual education. Changing demographic trends and an increasing number of migrants demand that the schools take the need of students who have trouble reading, writing and comprehending the English language. Urban public schools need urgent and sustainable help if the students are to compete favorably in the job market, and if the quality of their education is to improve. Christian principles recommend kindness and a Samaritan spirit towards those in need.5 In line with this Christian value, the Church must do all it can to ensure that not only do urban dwellers meet their basic human needs but that they

I can't believe that this was once a syllabus Assignment

I can't believe that this was once a syllabus - Assignment Example This particular curriculum design intended to evaluate the performance effectiveness in the educational system of America. Through his book, Ralph emphasized on the purpose of education in the life of children. Ralph focused on the factors such as what are the interests of the child, the problems he encountered in obtaining education through the traditional curriculum and the purpose of his study. Also to make the education system better, no particular source of information is adequate to provide a basis of wise and comprehensive decision. As Ralph suggested in his book, education system should be so formed that it would help to change the behavior of the people in the most righteous way. The feeling and thinking skills of the people influenced by the content derived from education was the key point highlighted in Ralph W Tyler’s principle. His basic principle was to understand learning of education and its effectiveness in the behavior of the people throughout the life (Tyler , 2013). Evaluation of Tyler’s Curriculum Tyler’s curriculum came into existence during his eight year study. The concentration point of the study was to understand whether students were actually getting educated through the learning delivered in the classes. While Ralph was working on his eight year study, he went to the Ohio State where the faculty wanted him to test the knowledge of the students. The instructor would give emphasis on taking tests, but Ralph suggested that tests would quantify the memorizing power of the student and not their understanding on the subject matter, which certainly became a major turning point in today’s contemporary education process. Ralph coined the term â€Å"Evaluation† to investigate the real leanings of the students through the education system (Tyler, 2013). The evaluation was to understand the effectiveness of education and learning on the people’s behavioral characteristics and their life in future. The une mployment rate in the organization was increasing due to the lack of learning in the specific subject matter. The curriculum theory of Ralph dealt with the real sense of understanding of education. The theory emphasized not on the dull sensing of meaning of the subject matter but focused on the inner meaning, emotions and continuous exploration of the study in the life of the student (Tyler, 2013). The curriculum theory also gave emphasis to few principles, which were required to be followed for a better education system. The principle of the curriculum was to explore the knowledge of the learning, the interest of the students in the given subject and most importantly, the purpose the child has in his mind regarding the study. It was observed through his curriculum theory that every student had different interests and hence, 30 schools were developed to try the new education system suggested by Ralph. The evaluation of students, were further suggested by Ralph, to be done by the rec ords of the performance of the students throughout. Appraisal system would be introduced every year to check the knowledge and to understand whether they are learning the expected skills, which would help them in future. The theory also stated that the evaluation of the people after completion of studies, which meant how the people are dealing in the real

In Civil Peace, How Does War Affect Society Essay Example for Free

In Civil Peace, How Does War Affect Society Essay In human history, especially in the ninetieth century and the twentieth century, there were many civil wars in different countries because of political, economic, religious, ethnic, and cultural conflicts, for example, the American Civil War between the United States and several southern slaves states from 1861 to 1865; the Korean Civil War between the Republic of Korea and Democratic people Republic of Korea from 1950 to 1953; the Chinese Civil War between the Republic of China and the Communist Party of China from 1927 to 1950, and the Nigeria Civil War between the Hausas Party and the Igbo Party from 1967 to 1970. Civil wars cause serious poverty and starvation for the people, kill tens of thousands of soldiers and civilians, and bring tragedies to many families. For instance, in the Korean Civil war, more than one million soldiers and civilians were killed, including over 40,000 American soldiers, 511,493 South Korean soldiers and civilians, about 400,000 North Koreans, and over 148,000 Chinese soldiers. Therefore, civil wars affect societies severely. In â€Å"Civil Peace†, the war causes terrible casualties of civilians and soldiers, results in fearful society instability, and destroys tremendous infrastructures and houses. In human history, especially in the ninetieth century and the twentieth century, there were many civil wars in different countries because of political, economic, religious, ethnic, and cultural conflicts, for example, the American Civil War between the United States and several southern slaves states from 1861 to 1865;[1] the Korean Civil War between the Republic of Korea and Democratic people Republic of Korea from 1950 to 1953;[2] the Chinese Civil War between the Republic of China and the Communist Party of China from 1927 to 1950, and the Nigeria Civil War between the Hausas Party and the Igbo Party from 1967 to 1970. 3] Civil wars cause serious poverty and starvation for the people, kill tens of thousands of soldiers and civilians, and bring tragedies to many families. For instance, in the Korean Civil war, more than one million soldiers and civilians were killed, including over 40,000 American soldiers, 511,493 South Korean soldiers and civilians, about 400,000 North Koreans, and over 148,000 Chinese soldiers. [4] Therefore, civil wars affect societies severely. In â€Å"Civil Peace†, the war causes terrible casualties of civilians and soldiers, results in fearful society instability, and destroys tremendous infrastructures and houses. First, most Nigerian civilians live in hunger and malnutrition, but more miserably, tens of thousands soldiers and civilians are killed during the devastating civil war. It is estimated that about 180,000 soldiers and civilians were battle deaths and non-battle deaths. [5] Contrary to Jonathan’s luckiness, such as â€Å"He had come out of war with five inestimable blessing-his head, his wife Maria’s head and the heads of three out of their four children†(Achebe 20), many parents lost all of their children and many other children lost their parents. They all live in extreme grief and sorrow of losing their family members. Furthermore, those children whose parents are dead can hardly survive in the extreme postwar poverty. A lot of people suffer life poverty and spiritual grief. Most important, civil war brings tragedies to many families. These tragedies will affect survivors forever. Secondly, civil war not only results in lots of corporations being closed down and many employees being unemployed, but also brings social instability. For example, most of Jonathan’s fellow ex-miners cannot find jobs. They cook meals that they scrounge together in Bournvita tins. Moreover, because a large number civilian population lacks food and money and they are always in starvation; some civilians are forced to make a living through robbery. These robbers bring people serious fear and pain. In â€Å"Civil Peace†, after Jonathan brings his ex-gratia award back home, a gang of robbers comes and threatens that they will break into the house at night if he doesn’t give them one hundred pounds. â€Å"Jonathan and his family were now completely paralyzed by terror. Maria and the children sobbed inaudibly like lost souls. Jonathan groaned continuously† (Achebe 23). At last, the thieves rob Jonathan twenty pounds. Therefore, the Civil War causes serious social instability and brings civilians more sorrows. Thirdly, in addition to life hardships and spiritual grieves, tremendous infrastructures and houses are destroyed in the war. Many people become destitute and homeless. For example, when Jonathan comes back Enugu, he is astonished to find that â€Å"Only two houses away a huge concrete edifice some wealthy contractor had put up just before the war was a mountain of rubble† (Achebe 22). Some ex-miners are sleeping out of the offices because their houses are ruined in civil war. It is well known that roads, bridges, railways, and rban water and electricity facilities are always heavily destroyed during wars. Civilians suffer starvations during the days and endure cold during the nights because their houses are damaged. Indeed, it is inconceivable how tough conditions people live in during the war. Jonathan is an extra-ordinarily lucky man, but most civilians’ lives are tragic. Without food, houses, money, families and jobs, many people almost collapse into near-madness. Therefore, civil war results in numerous houses and infrastructures ruined. In addition, civil war will severely block postwar national economic development. The governments need to invest lots of money to rebuild ruined national infrastructures. â€Å"Nothing puzzles God† says Jonathan (Achebe 25), but civil wars puzzle everyone. Most Nigeria civilians undergo poverty, homelessness, cold and sadness. Civil wars not only bring extreme poverty and starvation, but also cause severe casualties of soldiers and civilians. Moreover, numerous houses and facilities are terribly ruined. In addition, a lot of factories and corporations are forced to close down. Above all, the civil war contributes to severe social instability, brings families tragedies, and causes people deep sorrows.

Analysis of Data Security in Wireless Networks

Analysis of Data Security in Wireless Networks Chapter 1: Introduction Research Method Research is defined as search for new knowledge or an art of scientific and careful investigation of new facts. Research method is referred as a systematic methodology of defining and re-defining the problems, suggest solutions, formulate hypothesis, evaluate the data, make deductions and then reach conclusions. At last, test the conclusions to determine whether they are suitable for the formulating hypothesis or not (KOTHARI, C. R., 2005). The research method chosen for the present study are case studies. Case study research is used because of its capability to bring a clear idea on any complicated issue and thereby strengthening the previously developed research works. A key characteristic of case study research method is its ability to provide multiple sources of evidence each with its strengths and weaknesses (Bill Gillham, 2000). The steps involved in case study research method are as follows: Getting Started The research work started with the collection of data on Wireless Sensor Networks. Sensor networks are referred as secured networks if they can provide end to end security with authenticity and confidentiality. The present research work emphasizes the importance of providing data security in sensor networks through Location-Aware End-to-end Data Security system. Selecting Cases Selection of cases is an important aspect of building theory from case studies. The earlier stages of the research work focused on various security systems and then identified Location-Aware End-to-end Data Security system for providing data security in sensor networks. Literature review section of this research work will explain all these aspects very clearly. Case study research method is quiet difficult as it provides multiple sources of evidence in its research. So to develop this research work, data was collected from various sources like books, journals, articles and online websites. Crafting Instruments and Protocols After the collection of data related to sensor networks and its importance in the field of providing security for networks it was analyzed that efficient steps must be followed by the organizations to provide security for sensor networks. In order to provide an efficient data security system for sensor networks, the research work was customized a number of times. All the design principles were considered for improving the security in sensor networks so to implement better communication networks. Entering the field After gathering the information related to wireless sensor networks from various sources like websites, journals, articles and books. The information gathered gave a better understanding on Location-Aware End-to-end Data Security system for providing data security in sensor networks. Analyzing data The case study research method primarily concentrated on Location-Aware End-to-end Data Security system for providing data security in sensor networks. The data collected for this research work was analyzed using various methods and techniques. This analysis helps to find the link between the research objects and outcomes with respect to the present study thereby providing an opportunity to strengthen the research findings and conclusions. Shaping hypotheses The task of shaping hypotheses is mainly applied for the alteration or modification of models applied for the research work previously. The new models applied in the research depend upon the data analysis. Enfolding literature After the analysis stage which was helpful in assessing the proposed solutions related to the problems occurred by disasters then a detailed critical analysis will be presented in literature review section that will evaluate the existing security designs so as to improve the performance of sensor networks. Reaching closure From the start of the research work to the analysis stage it was analyzed that providing efficient security for sensor networks is very important as it increases the life of networks and improves the efficiency of networks. Background study of Wireless Sensor Networks Wireless Sensor networks will fall under the category of modern networking systems. It has emerged in the past and caters the needs of real world applications. These networks are the preferred choice for the design and development of monitoring and control systems. In the year of 1940s and 50s wireless sensing technology was developed. To discover and chase enemy craft this was used by military (Shimmer, 2006). The technology formulated to let in radio frequency identification and real time location system but the real force behind wireless sensor network was the power to place detectors in remote or in the environment without wired lines. This allows in turn for capture and analysis of information to transmit warnings and to identify the approaching phenomenon. The quality of life by allowing real time information was developed by WSNs. WSNs supply real world information in a perceive manner rather than a virtual world (Shimmer, 2006). As the health of the people is becoming worse a nd the global population is getting older, with the ability to sense and perform direct measurements biometric solutions can be created which will improve the healthcare and improves the quality of life. As one of the key drivers for wireless sensor networks data will be captured and analyzed for detecting and predicting the phenomena like falls and warnings to develop intelligent solutions for industry. Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 Overview Providing security for data in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) is a difficult task because of complexity in managing the critical resource. Data security in sensor networks can be achieved by Location-Aware End-to-end Data Security system. A sensor network can called as secured if it can provide end-to-end security through data confidentiality, authenticity and availability. Applications like wildlife monitoring, manufacturing performance monitoring and military operations use wireless sensor networks. Security is the most important requirement for all these WSNs applications. Providing security in wireless sensor networks is different from traditional approaches because of resource limitations and computation restrictions. Node compromise attacks, DoS attacks and resource consumption attacks are the most general attacks in the wireless sensor networks while providing security to the data. This research concentrates on wireless sensor networks, data security in sensor networks, Locat ion-Aware End-to-end Data Security (LEDS) systems and its performance in providing data security. 2.2 Wireless Sensor Network Wireless Sensor Network is a fast growing technology and has exciting research area. Military and civilian activities can be operated successfully using this network. Interconnection between thousands of sensor nodes in large sensor networks can create technical issues (LEWIS, F. L., 2004). To offer a high quality sensing in terms of space and time the sensing nodes are closely arranged and are made to work together. This technology is responsible for sensing and also for the first stages of the processing hierarchy. Computations, communication capacities, memory, low cost devices which have limited energy resources are included in the network. One of the major applications of sensor networks is actuators. This type of sensor networks is widely used in many sectors like military applications, environmental applications and commercial applications (RAGHAVENDRA, C. S., Krishna M. Sivalingam and Taieb F. Znati, 2004). Networks can be organized in multi-hop wireless paths and large lands capes in order to recognize the events of interest. Industries attain security and safety by making use of wireless sensor networks. This network uses sensors for the detection of toxic, harmful and unsafe materials and also provides a way for the identification of leakages which may cause dangerous results. These networks are best suitable for monitoring and help in controlling rotations in moving machinery (Edgar h. Callaway, 2003). Wide usage of sensor networks in large applications forces the network to provide security for data in order to operate the applications effectively. Security is the major issue faced by wireless sensor networks. The main reason for security problems in sensor networks is hold of data by attackers. If number of nodes increased in communication then there may be chance for tampering the data which may create the problem of data loss (CHAN, H. and PERRIG, A., 2003). This sensor network helps in expanding the internet into physical space. Compared to customary approaches wireless sensor networks provide many advantages. Information in sensors networks is available only at runtime. Sensors networking is done by contribution from signal processing, database and information management, embedded systems and architecture and distributed algorithms. Much number of sensors is already in use for monitoring the traffic in networks (Feng Zhao and leonidas J. Guibas, 2004) The organization growth reduces internally by loss of important data and due to false data introduced by hackers in network.However, the lack of end-to-end security guarantee makes the WSN weak due to the attacks. Functions in the networks are injured by internal attacks which lead to breakdown of mission-critical applianc es (Elaine Shi and PERRIG, A., 2004). Hence from the above discussion it can be understood that wireless networks leads to a new trend as the way of interchanging of data through internet service like e-mail and data file transfers is increasing tremendously. WSN is used in many martial appliances. As these networks provide many benefit for organizations and users it lacks in providing security to data while transferring. Wireless sensor networks play a vital role in transferring the data from one network to another without any delays or disturbances. The functionality and behavior of the WSN are completely dissimilar from the other wireless network devices present in WSN.WSN are not assured by the users. In terms of battery and power these devices are much more restrained. The WSN can be separated into two parts Data acquisition and data dissemination network. Data acquisition network consists of sensor nodes and base stations. Sensor nodes are the accumulation of small devices wit h the charge of assessing the physical information of its setting, and base stations are influential devices in case of gathering information of its surroundings. Sensor networks are mainly projected for real-time collection and analysis of low level data in aggressive environments (Javier Lopez and Jianying Zhou, 2008). For this reason they are well fitted to a significant amount of monitoring and observation applications. Famous wireless sensor network applications involve wildlife monitoring, bushfire response, military command, intelligent communications, industrial quality control, infrastructures, smart buildings, traffic monitoring and examining human heart rates etc. greater part of the sensor network are spread in aggressive environments with active intelligent resistance (Feng Zhao and Leonidas J. Guibas, 2004). Hence security is a crucial issue. One obvious example is battlefield applications where there is a pressing need for secrecy of location and resistance to subvers ion and destruction of the network. 2.3. Evaluating the existing security designs in WSNs Evaluation of existing systems can be done with the help of data security requirements like data authentication, availability and authentication. Security is not provided efficiently by the existing systems due to weak security strengths and is exposed to many different attacks. Security authentication tools such as authentication and key management. These tools provide various security mechanisms for sensor network. Routing and localization are supports sensor network (Donggang Liu and Peng Ning, 2007). Similar to the traditional networks most of the sensor network applications need security against introduction, and modification of packets. Cryptography is the standard defense. Interesting system tradeoffs grow while comparing cryptography into sensor networks. For point-to-point communication, continues cryptography attains a high level of protection but involves those keys to be set up among all end points and be in companionable with passive participation and local broadcast (C. S. Ragahavendhra, Krishna M. Sivalingam, Taieb F. znati, 2004). Link layer cryptography with a network wide shared key simplifies key setup and supports passive participation and local broadcast but intermediate nodes might alter messages. The earliest sensor networks are likely to use link layer cryptography because this approach supplies the greatest ease of deployment among presently available network cryptographic approaches. Subsequent systems may react to demand for more security with more advanced use of cryptography. Cryptography implies a performance cost for extra computation that frequently gains packet size. Cryptographic hardware support increases efficiency and also increases the financial cost of implementing a network. Limitations of existing key management schemes From many past years many different pre-distribution schemes have been proposed. Hop-by-hop is one of the techniques which dont provide end-to-end security in a proper manner. This hop-by-hop not only involves the end points but also have the intermediate components for data forwarding. Hop-by-hop header carries information which should be examined by each and every node along the packet path. As this technique involves each node referencing and processing it becomes complex in analysis of networks (Alberto Leon Garcia and Indra Widjaja, 2004). Data authentication and confidentiality is very much vulnerable to inside attacks and the multi hopping makes a worse while transmitting the messages. The problem of distributing and updating cryptographic is to valid member is known as Key Management. The key management is one of the most important tasks in the cryptographic mechanisms for networks. However the sensor networks, the key management is one of the more challenging network because there may be no central authority, trusted third party, or server to manage security keys. The key management performed in the distributed way. The self organization scheme to distribute and manage the security keys proposed (Yang Xiao, 2006). This system certificates are stored and distributed to the user by themselves. False data filtering and their analysis This helps in protecting data from validation in WSNs. Data that is not authorized will be filtered out by the transitional nodes. Location Based Resilient Secrecy (LBRS) is the proposed scheme that identifies the problems and errors in Statistical En-route Filtering (SEF) and Interleaved Hop-by–Hop Authentication (IHA). All these methods are highly exposed to interference attacks and selective forwarding attacks (kui Ren, Wenjing Lou and Yanchao Zhang, 2008). SEF helps in detecting and dropping the false reports during the forwarding process that contains Message Authentication Codes (MAC) generated by multiple nodes (Anne-Marie Kermarrec, Luc Bouge and Thierry Priol, 2007). IHA identifies the fake reports by using interleaved authentication 2.4. Data Security Requirements in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) As wireless sensor networks usage is increasing in organizations, security should be provided for data in order operate organizations successfully. Data security in wireless sensor networks includes data authentication, data availability and data confidentiality. Data should be available for authenticated users only in order to provide security. Various data security requirements for wireless sensor networks are (Kui Ren, Wenjing Lou and Yanchao Zhang, 2008): Data availability Data Confidentiality Data authentication Data integrity Time synchronization Secure Localization Data availability – To ensure availability of message protection in sensor network it should protect the resources or sensor nodes. Nodes in sensor networks should be guarded from unnecessary processing of messages. Avoiding unnecessary processing can reduce the energy usage so that the life time of sensor network increases. Wireless sensors are influenced by many factors like limited communication capabilities and computation. Wireless sensor networks are vulnerable to various attacks like Denial of Service attacks, node compromise attack and resource consumption attack (Shinqun Li, Tieyan Li and Xinkai Wang, 2002). Hence, in order to provide availability and security resources should be maintained effectively. Data Confidentiality – In wireless sensor networks confidentiality can be achieved by allowing only authenticated users to access the data. In sensor networks data can be secured by using cryptographic methods. Using encryption and decryption for data allows only authenticated users to access the data. Unauthorized or third parties cannot read the original data if confidentiality is provided effectively (Chris Karlof, Naveen sastry and David Wagner, 2004). Hence to have confidentiality for data wireless sensor networks should make of encryption methods. Data authentication – Authentication is necessary for controlling the sensor networks effectively. Data authentication in sensor networks allows the users to verify whether the data is sent from authorized resources or not. It also protects the original data from alterations. Digital signatures can be used for authentication in sensor networks (Mona Sharifnejad, Mohsen Sharifi and Mansoureh, 2007). Hence, authentication in sensor networks can be achieved with digital signature which helps in authenticating the senders. Hence from the discussion it can be given in order to provide security data availability, authentication and confidentiality should be sustained in sensor networks. Data Integrity Data integrity in sensor networks is required to check the dependability of the information and concerns to the capability, to support that message has not been corrupted, altered or changed. Even if the network has confidentiality measures, there is still a possibility that the data integrity has been compromised by alterations (Richard Zurawski, 2006). The integrity of the network will be in trouble when the malicious node present in the network throws fake data. Wireless channel cause damage or loss of data due to unstable conditions. Hence from the above it can be given the information provided by the sensor network is easily corrupted which can leads to loss of data. Time Synchronization Most of the sensor network applications trust on some form of time synchronization. Moreover, sensors may wish to calculate the continuous delay of a packet as it moves among two pair wise sensors. For tracking the applications a more collaborative sensor network may involve group synchronization. Secure Localization The usefulness of a sensor network will trust on its ability of each sensor to accurately and mechanically locate in the network (G. Padmavathi and D. Shanmugapriya, 2009). A sensor network planned to locate faults and it need accurate fixed information in order to identify the location of a fault. In this an attacker can easily misrepresent non secured location information by giving false signal strengths and playing back signals. Hence from the above content it has discussed about the security goals that are widely available for wireless sensor networks. 2.5. Proposing Location-Aware End-to-end Data Security (LEDS) LEDS helps in providing safety to data in a well-organized way. Security to data is provided through confidentiality, authentication and availability in LEDS. This mechanism has the ability to provide en-route filtering and end to end authentication. It makes use of key management for achieving data security. LEDS can be used either in small networks or large networks (Ed Dawson and Duncan S. Wong, 2007). LEDS splits the whole network into small cell regions and sends keys for each cell in order to provide security. Cell size of LEDS depends on the number of keys distribute and it does not support dynamic topology. Sensors helps in finding events that are occurring in network. Encryption of events is happened in networks by sensor nodes which are participating in the network. In order to encrypt the events LEDS uses the pre distributed cell keys (Abu Shohel Ahmed, 2009). Sensor nodes calculates unique share key for sensors after encrypting the data, where this is demonstrated using d ifferent sinks. Sensor nodes use authentication keys for calculating MACs. To avoid duplicate reporting each and every report is given with different MACs. A report or data validity will be checked at each and every node while broadcasting through networks in order to provide data security (Fan Ye, Hao Yang and Starsky H.Y. Wong, 2006). Hence from the above discussion it can be understood that, LEDS mechanism helps wireless sensor networks in providing end to end security. This mechanism makes use of key management in order to provide data authentication, confidentiality and availability. The main aim of designing LEDS is to provide end to end data security through data confidentiality, authenticity and availability. LEDS has the capability of preventing false data report attacks. Brief description of the goals of designing LEDS: Provide end-to-end data confidentiality and authenticity: Event reports in wireless sensor networks can maintain authenticity and confidentiality if the sending nodes themselves are not compromised for data corruption. Compromised nodes may affect the neighbor node performance. Cryptographic methods are used to protect data from attackers which is collected from compromised nodes. Key management assists in providing data authenticity and confidentiality by LEDS (Jun Luo, Panos Papadimitratos and Jean-Pierre Hubaux, 2007). In LEDS key management mechanism the nodes use keys for applying cryptographic methods on data in order to provide security. Achieve high level of assurance on data availability: If any attack occurs on data in wireless sensor network, then it should be flexible in selecting alternative ways for forwarding the data. In order to ensure availability, networks should be able to detect and drop the duplicate reports in an efficient and deterministic manner (Kui Ren, Wenjing Lou and Yanchao Zhang, 2008). LEDS assures data availability in the networks by identifying the duplicate reports early in the networks. Hence from the discussion it can be understood that, LEDS was designed for providing security in the wireless sensor networks. False information reports can be eliminated by using some LEDS mechanisms in networks. 2.6. Components of Location-Aware End-to-end Data Security To provide data security, LEDS makes use of two major components: Location-aware key management framework. End-to-end data security mechanism. LEDS provides end to end security by providing data authentication, confidentiality and availability. 2.6.1. Location-aware key management framework As wireless sensor networks are used in wide range of applications it should be deployed correctly in order to collect data. Network planners should give a framework before organizing in order to have security to data. LEDS makes use of key management in providing framework for the sensor networks. Using Key management in LEDS exploits the static and location-aware nature of wireless sensor networks (Reihanah Safavi Naini, 2008). Key management adopts a grid structure for redistributing and examining specific properties related to designing process. For providing a light-weight and robust location aware key management framework for sensor nodes in network preloaded keys are distributed in networks. This framework can be understood through embedding location information into the keys. Framework using key management should be derived in such a way that it should provide data authentication, confidentiality and availability (Yan Zhang, Honglin Hu and Masayuki Fujise, 2006). In LEDS ever y sensor node computes three different types of location-aware keys for distributing purpose. A sensor node computes two unique secret keys which can be shared between a node and sink. These keys help in providing node to sink authentication. A cell key will be distributed between two nodes in the same cell. Confidentiality to data in Wireless Sensor Networks is given by distribution cell keys among network elements. A set of authentication keys can be distributed among the nodes in the network in order to provide authentication to the nodes. This distributing of keys can help sensor networks in data filtering. A Sensor node in the network computes the location-aware key independently. Key management provides basis for end to end data security (Kui Ren, Wenjing Lou and Yanchao Zhang, 2008). Key management strategies for wireless sensor network have proposed recently existing keys which are based on pre-distribution where a probabilistic access for fixing up session keys among adjace nt nodes. Random key Pre-distribution schemes are dangerous to selective nodes and node replication attacks. These frequent attacks can be prohibited by the location aware key management. More challenges are to be taken by the location aware key management such as connectivity within the groups, deployment flexibility and security resilience (Xiaofang Zhou, 2006). Existing strategies need the deployment data as a priority before the deployment. This makes it very hard in major applications. Hence from the above discussion it can be concluded that, for developing a structure for WSN LEDS uses the key management technique. In this framework the safety to data is given by the distribution of keys between sensor nodes. Different location-aware keys computed from sensor nodes can provide data confidentiality, authentication and data filtering. 2.6.2 End-to-end data security mechanism Security is the main issue in transformation of data over internet or any wired or wireless communication. Several encryption methods are implemented and deployed in organization for providing security to data. Network smart cards supports networking mainstream standards and secured protocols. Private data can be sent from smart cards to remote server by establishing a secured connection between network smart cards and trusted remote internet server. This mechanism helps in avoiding manual type for confidential information. End-to-end mechanism struggle in identifying threat mechanism that will capture the data before it is encrypted (Yuliang Zhenq, 2004). Specificdevices and protocols can be installed at the end point connection for offering end to end security. Hyper text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) connection is an example of end-to-end connection to web server where an IP security is used as end-to-end security. There is an opinion that end-to-end security mechanism provides solutio ns in providing security to network based systems. Wireless sensor networks usually consist of a prominent number of resource constraint sensor nodes which are distributed in neglected uncongenial surroundings, and therefore are displayed to more characters of serious insider approaches due to node cooperation. Existing security designs generally supply a step by step security prototype and are exposed to such attacks (Claude Castelluccia, 2005). Moreover, existing security designs are also exposed to several DOS attacks such as report disruption attacks and selective forwarding attacks and thus put information accessibility at stake. To overcome these exposures for major static WSNs come up with a location-aware end-to-end security framework in which secret keys are bound to geographic locations (frank Stajano , Catherine Meadows, Srdjan Capkun and Tyler more, 2007). This location alert property successfully limits the impact of settled nodes only to their locality without involvin g end-to-end data security. The suggested multi functional key management framework checks both node to sink and node to node authentication along with the report forwarding routes and the suggested data delivery access assures effective en-route fake data filtering, and is highly influential against DOS attacks. In end-to-end security the end points refers to connection between client and server. Providing security is the major constraint for transferring data in a secured manner. For providing end-to-end secure communication constrains components like (Michael H. Behringer, 2009) Identity- which helps in identification of entities at both the ends Protocols- to provide required security functions protocols are implemented with the help of algorithms. Security- the end points used by network should be provided with secured protocols and the operations implemented on the end points should be in a secured manner. Thus from the above context it can be given that networks which uses end-to-end security mechanism provides a great security. In spite of having some potential problems end –to-end security many of the organizations are deploying this type of mechanism. End-to-end security protocols and their clarification acts as keystone in having security for the networks. 2.7. Security and performance analysis of LEDS Location aware End to end Data security design (LEDS) function is to anticipate the security and analyze in diverse etiquette. Digital systems afford the sanctuary by means of sundry techniques. In providing the security features researchers generate innovative services for improving the recital and trustworthiness of single technique algorithm (Sam Brown, 2002). Along with security the performance, hardware and software implementations are focused, transparency of the requirements as well as performance and productivity. The factors that involves in escalating this technology are Viability, power consumption, area, complexity, Flexibility. Security analysis can be explained in three dissimilar ways (Kui Ren, Wenjing Lou and Yanchao Zhang, 2008): Data Confidentiality as the security strength Data Authenticity Data Availability Data Confidentiality as the security strength: The requirement of provide data confidentiality within the internal network can be met using the same deployment and management approaches used. Using of the data encryption standard the confidentiality of encryption could be obtained. Data Confidentiality is also used in the Marketing and Sales (John W. Ritting House and James F. Ransome, 2004). In LEDS every report is encrypted by the corresponding cell key and therefore no nodes out of the event cell could obtain its content. Node from the event cell is compromised as the attacker obtains the contents of the corresponding reports because of the data confidentiality. Scheming total network cells number of compromised nodes and portion of compromised cell were utilized. There are two ways for calculating they are Random node capture attack and selective node capture attack. The above figure shows the data confidentiality in LEDS. One has to be clear that in compromising 40% of total cells at least 5% of the total nodes are to be compromised. Along with random node capture attacks accessible defense designs in which compromising a few hundred nodes usually compromise even in all the network communication, which specifies the dominance of the altitude in litheness. Data Authenticity By using diverse online techniques authenticity of data is accomplished. Significance of the data generation determines the position of the obligation (Chris Mann and Fiona Stewart, 2000). Security strength of LEDS regarding the data Authenticity is obtained by the content o

Mental Health: Concepts of Race and Gender

Mental Health: Concepts of Race and Gender Mental distress/disorder as a function of the society we live in: implications for the practice of mental health social work in terms of gender and race Introduction Mental illness/disorder/distress is a rather ambiguous umbrella term for describing a wide range of diverse disorders of the mind. According to the Oxford Medical Dictionary, mental illness is â€Å"a disorder of one or more of the functions of the mind (such as emotion, perception, memory, or thought), which causes suffering to the patient or others† (Oxford Medical Dictionary, 2007). The global burden of mental illness was estimated at 12.3% at the beginning of the millennium and is expected to rise even further in the next decade (Murray and Lopez, 1997; Patel et al, 2006). Critical perspectives that refute the biological definitions of mental illness started to arise in the 1960s. Szasz (1961) and other critical theorists have continually challenged the classification of normal and abnormal behavioural categories, and focused instead on the role of social factors on the development of mental illness (Martin, 2003). Key among these factors are gender, race and ethnicity, sexual preference, age and class. Apart from several medical theories that explain the aetiology of mental illness with neurological chemical imbalances, the actual causes of such psychological disorders are largely unknown. However, as outlined above, there are myriad known factors that trigger or prompt such mental impairment. Work stress and work-related psychosocial conditions, for example, plays an important role in self-reported mental health (Kopp M et al, 2008). Furthermore, gender is generally accepted as a significant risk factor for the development of mental distress. The World Health Organization acknowledges that a large majority of common mental health diseases are more frequently reported in the female gender than in their male counterparts. As an example – common psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety are predominant in women. Conversely, there are other disorders of the mind that are more common in men. These include, but are not limited to, substance misuse (including alcohol dependence) and antisocial personality disorder (The World Health Organization). Nevertheless, there are no reported differences in the incidence of some severe mental disorders, like schizophrenia, in men and women. In addition to the gender-related differences documented in the incidence of these disorders, there have also been reported differences in terms of the epidemiology and severity – age of onset, symptom frequency, soci al adjustment, prognosis and trajectory of the illness. The World Health Organization proffers possible explanation for the observed differences between genders – men and women have differential withstanding power over socioeconomic determinants of their mental health, social position, status and treatment in society and their susceptibility and exposure to specific mental health risks (The World Health Organization). Similarly, race could also be a determining factor for the development of mental illness. In addition, mental illness in some races, e.g. black and minority ethnic (BME) groups can be further exacerbated by alleged discrepancies in the mental health services available to this potentially vulnerable groups of patients (Ferns P, 2008). A possibly rational explanation for the reason behind any disparities in mental health across diverse races could be the societal differences that are inherent to various cultural backgrounds. The main objective of this paper is to analyse the social factors that can prompt mental distress, especially in women and people from BME populations, and to rationalise how these factors may actually pathologise the discourse of mental health. Mental Illness in Women The natural subordinate role of women and gender stereotypes in most societies makes them prone to disorders of the mind. Psychoanalytic theories believe that patriarchy-based communities are associated with a higher rate of mental illness in women (Olfman S, 1994). These supremacy-governed organisations in which men are largely in control leave women with a consistent feeling of repression, which could culminate in mental distress. Indeed, in some extreme societies, women with more independent views who express anger or dissatisfaction with the standard patriarchal social structure are often seen as having psychological problems (Martin, 2003). According to The World Health Organization, gender-specific roles, negative life occurrences and stressors can adversely affect mental health. Clearly the impact of the latter factors (i.e. life experiences and stressors) is in no way exclusive to the female gender. However, it is the nature of some events that are sometimes commonplace in women’s lives that could account for the documented gender-related differences. Risk factors for mental illness that mainly affect women include women-targeted violence, financial difficulties, inequality at work and in the society, burdensome responsibility, pregnancy-related issues, oppression, discrimination, and abuse. There is a linear correlation between the frequency and severity of such social factors and the frequency and severity of female mental health problems. Adverse life events that initiate a sense of loss, inferiority, or entrapment can also predict depression (The World Health Organization). Furthermore, in a domino-effect way some female factors can also lead to mental illness, not just in the individual concerned, but also in subsequent generations and/ or interacting family and friends. For example – maternal depression has been shown to be associated with failure of children to strive in the community, which in turn could culminate in delays in the developmental process and subsequent psychological or psychiatric problems (Patel et al, 2004). In the past three decades, the debate of women and mental health illness and their treatment in mental health services has been quite controversial (Martin J, 2003). From a social constructionist point of view, it is believed that some women are wrongly labelled as ‘mentally ill’ merely because they do not accept certain (usually unfair and unfounded) gender-related stereotypical placement in the society. In this often-cited and somewhat controversial book chapter by Jennifer Martin (Mental health: rethinking practices with women) she expresses great concern for the biological explanations of mental health which have the tendency to lay undue emphasis on the female reproductive biology that supposedly leads to a predisposition to mental illness. Such sexist notions tend to disproportionately highlight female conditions such as pre-menstrual tension, post-natal depression and menopause, in a bid to foster the notion that women are at higher risk of developing mental distr ess (Martin J, 2003). Instead of this allegedly short-sighted approach to the medicalisation of mental health in women, feminist theorists focus on female mental illness as a function of the lives they are made to live within patriarchal, and often oppressive, societies. Women are disadvantaged – both socially and psychologically – by these unreasonably subservient role expectations (Martin J, 2003). Mental Illness and Race The United Kingdom (UK) is a home to a very diverse and multicultural population, and BME communities make up approximately 7.8% of the total UK population (Fernando S, 2005). There are innate differences in the presentation, management and outcome of mental illness between the different races and ethnic groups (Cochrane R and Sashidharan S, 1996; Coid J et al, 2002; Bhui K et al, 2003). In a recent policy report for the UK Government Office of Science, Jenkins R et al, (2008) explained that while some mental disorders appear to be more common in the BME populations, others are not. In addition, incidence rates of different mental disorders also vary among different ethnic groups within the BME populations. For example, depression is increasingly common in the Irish and Black Caribbeans, but not necessarily in the Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi sub-populations (Jenkins R et al, 2008). In the UK, the risk of suicide also varies by gender as well as ethnicity, with Asian men and Black Carribeans having lower rates than the general UK population, and Asian women having higher rates. Similarly, the incidence of psychoses is not uniformly elevated in all BME groups – the highest incidence is seen in Black Caribbean and Black African groups in the UK, (4 – 10 times the normal rates seen in the White British group) (Jenkins R et al, 2008). In a retrospective case-control study of a representative sample of more than 22,000 deceased individuals, Kung et al (2005) highlighted important disparities in mental health disorders, such as substance misuse, depressive symptoms and mental health service utilisation as possible determinants of suicidal behaviours and/ or attempts. Also, clear associations have been demonstrated between racism and the higher rates of mental illness among BME groups (McKenzie K, 2004). The rising incidence of suicides in some developing countries, as seen with Indian farmers, South American indigenes, alcohol-related deaths in Eastern Europe, and young women in rural China, can be partly attributed to economic and social change in these nations (Sundar M, 1999; Phillips M et al, 1999). Pre-, peri- and post-migratory experiences can be major stressor determinants for the development of mental health illness (Jenkins R et al, 2008). Therefore, in order to understand the differences in these populations, it is of utmost importance to gain some insight into their cultural backgrounds and the happenings in their countries of origin all of which could be determinants of mental health. There is a direct relationship between social change and mental health and, in the recent past, many developing countries have undergone incomparable, fast-paced social and economic changes. As Patel et al (2006) have pointed out, such economic upheavals commonly go hand-in-hand with ruralà ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ­urban migration and disruptive social and economic networks. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that The World Health Organization has acknowledged that such changes can cause sudden disruptive changes to social factors, such as income and employment, which can directly affect individuals and ultimately lead to an increased rate of mental disorders. Also Alean Al-Krenawi of the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev has extensively explored how exposure to political violence has influenced the mental health of Palestinian and Israeli teenagers (Al-Krenawi A, 2005). Al-Krenawi goes on to emphasise that the concept of mental health in the Arab world is a multi-faceted one and is often shaped not only by the socio-cultural-political aspects of the society, but also by the spiritual and religious beliefs. In addition, the perception of racial discrimination has been identified as a significant contributory factor to poor mental and overall health in BME groups – even more important that the contribution of socio-economic factors (Jenkins R et al, 2008). It is disheartening to note that institutionalised and/ or constitutional racism is rife in the conceptual systems that are employed in the provision of mental health services (Wade J, 1993; Timimi S, 2005). Implications for the Practice of Mental Health Social Work In general, people suffering from mental illnesses receive substandard treatment from medical practitioners both in the emergency room and in general treatment, and insurance coverage policies are usually unequal compared with their mentally balanced counterparts (McNulty J, 2004). For BME populations, especially Black and Asians, access and utilisation of mental health services are very different from those recorded for White people (Lloyd P and Moodley P, 1992; Bhui K, 1997). Exploring the pathway to care in mental health services, Bhui K and Bhugra D (2002) highlight that the most common point of access to mental health services for some BME groups is through the criminal justice system, instead of their general practitioner, as would be the case in their White counterparts. Major areas in which institutional racism is rife in the provision of mental health services to BME patients include mental health policy, diagnosis and treatment (Wade J, 1993). For example, Black patients with mental illness are more likely to be treated among forensic, psychiatric and detained populations (Coid J et al, 2002; Bhui K et al, 2003) and are also disproportionately treated with antipsychotic medication than psychotherapy (McKenzie K et al, 2001). Having said this, it is important to differentiate between racial bias and the consideration of racial and ethnic differences. In fact, ignoring these essential differences could actually be seen as a different type of bias (Snowden L, 2003). Already, members of the BME population face prejudice and discrimination; this is doubled when there is the additional burden of mental illness, and is one of the major reasons why some of these patients choose not to seek adequate treatment (Gary F, 2005). As such, stigma arising from racism can be a significant barrier to treatment and well-being, and interventions to prevent this should be prioritised. It is therefore also of utmost importance that institutional racism be eliminated. As far back as 1977, Rack described some of the practical problems that arise in providing mental health care in a multicultural society. These include, but are not limited to: language, diagnostic differences, treatment expectations and acceptability. Some effort has been made to address some of these problems in England, by the development of projects for minority ethnic communities both within the statutory mental health services and in non-governmental sector (Fernando S, 2005). In addition, overcoming language barriers should help in eliminating racial and ethnic disparities towards achieving equal access and quality mental health care for all (Snowden L et al, 2007). The World Health Organization also draws attention to similar bias against the female gender in the treatment of mental disorders. Doctors are generally more likely to diagnose depression in women than in men, even with patients that present with similar symptoms and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) scores. Probably as a result of this bias, doctors are also more likely to prescribe mood-altering psychotropic drugs to women. Considering that immigrants and women separately face challenges with the provision of mental health care, it is expected that immigrant women would have even more setbacks, owing to their double risk status. Using Kleinman’s explanatory model, O’Mahony J and Donnelly T (2007) found that this unfortunate patient group face many obstacles due to cultural differences, social stigma spiritual and religious beliefs and practices, and unfamiliarity with Western medicine. However, the study did also highlight some positive influences of immigrant women’s cultural backgrounds, which could be harnessed in the management of these patients. To effectively target and treat the diverse population that commonly present with mental illness in the UK, it is necessary to promote interculturalisation, i.e. â€Å"the adaptation of mental health services to suit patients from different cultures† (De Jong J and Van Ommeren M, 2005). Hollar M (2001) has developed an outline for the use of cultural formulations in psychiatric diagnosis, and advocates for the inclusion of the legacy of slavery and the history of racism to help understand the current healthcare crisis, especially in the Black population. Conclusion As we have discussed extensively in this paper, females and patients of BME origin are commonly disadvantaged in the treatment of mental illnesses. Mental healthcare professionals need to eliminate all bias in the treatment of these patients, while at the same time, taking into consideration their inherent differences to ensure that mental health services provided are personalised to suit the individual patient. References Al-Krenawi A. Editorial: mental health issues in Arab society. Israeli Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences 2005; 42 (2): 71. Bhui K. Service provision for London’s ethnic minorities. In London’s Mental Health, London: King’s Fund (1997). Bhui K and Bhugra D. Mental illness in Black and Asian ethnic minorities: pathways to care and outcomes. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 2002; 8: 26 – 33. Bhui K, Stansfeld S, Hull S, Priebe S, Mole F, Feder G. Ethnic variations in pathways to specialist mental health care: a systematic review. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2003; 182: 5 – 16. Cochrane R and Sashidharan S. Ethnicity and health: reviews of the literature and guidance for purchasers in the areas of cardiovascular disease, mental health, and haemoglobinopathies. York: University of York, 1996: 105 – 126 (part 3). Coid J, Petruckevitch A, Bebbington P, Brugha T, Brugha D, Jenkins R, et al. Ethnic differences in prisoners. 1: criminality and psychiatric morbidity. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2002; 181: 473 – 480. De Jong J and Van Ommeren M. Mental health services in a multicultural society: interculturalisation and its quality surveillance. Transcultural Psychiatry 2005; 42 (3): 437 – 456. Fernando S. Multicultural mental health services: projects for minority ethnic communities in England. Transcultural Psychiatry 2005; 42 (3): 420 – 436. Ferns P. The bigger picture. If racism exists in society, then surely it must influence mental health services. Mental Health Today 2008 March; 20. Gary F. Stigma: barrier to mental health care among ethnic minorities. Issues in Mental Health Nursing 2005; 26 (10): 979 – 999. Hollar M. The impact o0f racism on the delivery of healthcare and mental services. Psychiatric Quarterly 2001 Winter; 72 (4): 337 – 345. Jenkins R, Meltzer H, Jones P, Brugha T, Bebbington P, Farrell M, Crepaz-Keay D and Knapp M. Foresight Mental Capital and Wellbeing Project. Mental health: Future challenges. The Government Office for Science, London (2008). Kopp M, Stauder A, Purebl G, Janszky I, Skrbski A. Work stress and mental health in a changing society. European Journal of Public Health 2008; 18(3): 238 – 244. Kung H, Pearson J, Wei R. Substance use, firearm availability, depressive symptoms, and mental health service utilization among white and Africa-American suicide decedents aged 15 to 64 years. Annals of Epidemiology 2005; 15 (8); 614 – 621. Lloyd P and Moodley P. Psychotropic medication and ethnicity: an inpatient survey. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 1997; 27: 95 – 101. Martin E ed. (2007). Oxford Concise Colour Medical Dictionary. Oxford University Press; 4th edition, page 445. Martin J (2003). Mental health: rethinking practices with women in Critical social work: an introduction to theories and practices. By Bob Pease, June Allan, Linda Briskman. Published by Allen Unwin, 2003 ISBN 1865089079, 9781865089072. McKenzie K, Samele C, Van Horn E, Tattan T, Van Os J, Murray R. Comparison of the outcome and treatment of psychosis in people of Carribean origin living in the UK and British Whites. Report from the UK700 trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2001; 178: 160 – 165. McKenzie K. Tackling the root cause: there are clear links between racism and the higher rates of mental illness among ethnic minority groups. Mental Health Today 2004; 30 – 32. McNulty J. Commentary: mental illness, society, stigma and research. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2004; 30 (3): 573 – 575. Murray C, Lopez A. Alternative projections of mortality and disability by cause 1990 – 2020: global burden of disease study. The Lancet 1997; 349: 1498 – 1504. O’Mahony J and Donnelly T. The influence of culture on immigrant women’s mental health care experiences from the perspectives of health care providers. Issues in Mental Health Nursing 2007; 28 (5): 453 – 471. Olfman S. Gender, patriarchy, and womens mental health: psychoanalytic perspectives. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis 1994; 22: 259 à ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ­ 271. Patel V, Rahman A, Jacob K, Hughes M. Effect of maternal mental health in infant growth in low income countries: new evidence from South Asia. The British Medical Journal 2004; 328: 820 à ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ­ 823. Patel V, Saraceno B, Kleinman A. Beyond evidence: the moral case for international mental health. The American Journal of Psychiatry 163: 8; 1312 – 1315. Phillips M, Liu H, Zhang Y. Suicide and social change in China. Cultural Medical Psychiatry 1999; 23: 25 – 50. Rack P. Some practical problems in providing a psychiatric service for immigrants. Mental Health Soc 1977; 4 (3à ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ­4): 144 – 151. Snowden L. Bias in mental health assessment and intervention: theory and evidence. American Journal of Public Health 2003; 93 (2): 239 – 243. Snowden L, Masland M, Guerrero R. Federal civil rights policy and mental health treatment access for persons with limited English proficiency. American Psychology 2007; 62 (2): 109 – 117. Szasz (1961) in Martin J (2003). Mental health: rethinking practices with women in Critical social work: an introduction to theories and practices. By Bob Pease, June Allan, Linda Briskman. Published by Allen Unwin, 2003 ISBN 1865089079, 9781865089072. Sundar M. Suicide in farmers in India. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1999; 175: 585 – 586. The World Health Organization. Gender and womens mental health: Gender disparities and mental health: The Facts. [WWW] Available online at http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/genderwomen/en/ (Accessed Friday November 15th 2008). Timimi S. Institutionalised racism lies at the heart of the conceptual systems we use in psychiatry. Mental Health Today 2005; 21. Wade J. Institutional racism: an analysis of the mental health system. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1993; 63 (4): 536 – 544. Cervical Cancer: Types, Causes and Cures Cervical Cancer: Types, Causes and Cures By: Omar Abdulle What is Cervical Cancer? Cervical cancer is a disease that affects the cervix of the female reproductive system. The cervix is located in the lower part of the uterus; it connects the vagina to the uterus. Cervical cancer can be classified to two types, Squamous cell carcinomasand Adenocarcinomas. Squamous cell carcinomas account for 80-90 % of all cervical cancer cases. Meanwhile, Adenocarcinomas in found in the glandular cells of the cervix makes up for 10-20% of cervical cancer cases.1 Most cervical cancer starts in the cells in the transformation zone. The cells do not immediately change into cancer. The normal cells of the cervix slowly develop benign tumours that turn into cancer. Only some of the women with pre-cancerous tumours in the cervix will develop cancer. It normally takes several years for benign tumours to turn into malignant tumours. Statistics indicate that 1,500 Canadian women will be diagnosed with cervical cancer in 2016. An estimated 400 will die from it.2 Causes Most cases of cervical cancer are caused by a high-risk type of HPV. HPV is a virus that is passed from person to person through genital contact, such as vaginal, anal, or oral sex. If the HPV infection does not go away on its own, it may cause cervical cancer over time.3 The viruses in the sexual transmitted (HPV) trigger abnormal behavior in the cervical cells causing pre-cancerous conditions. Risk factors Many sexual partners. Early sexual activity. Weak immune system. Smoking. Detection and Diagnosing Detecting Cervical cancer that is detected early can be treated successfully. Doctors recommend regular screening to detect any abnormal cells in the cervix. During screening Doctors will conduct Pap tests to find out the DNA of the cervical cells. The purpose of Pap test is to spot the cancer cells in the cervix. If not diagnosed with cervical cancer, doctors highly suggest continuing screening as risks of getting cervical cancer are high. Diagnosing If cancerous cells are found in the cervix, Doctors will perform the following tests to examine the cervix. The tests are; Punch Biopsy Involves a sharp tool to pinch off cervical tissue for further examination. Endocervical curettage small spoon-shaped instrument to brush a tissue sample from the cervix. The final stage of detecting and diagnosing cervical cancer is called staging. At this point, Doctors have determined you have cervical cancer. Staging can be divided in to for sub-sections. They are: Stage I Cancer is restricted. Stage II Cancer is existent in the cervix and upper vagina. Stage III Cancer is moving. Stage IV Cancer has spread to other nearby organs and parts of the body. Precautionary steps Taking precautionary steps is the right path to reduce the risk of contracting cervical cancer. Experts suggest; Avoid exposure to Human Papilloma Virus (HPV). Get a HPV vaccine. Avoid smoking. Forms of Treatment Just like other forms of cancer, cervical cancer can be treated through the main forms of treatment. I.e. Surgery, Chemotherapy, Radiation therapy, and Targeted therapy. Surgery Determines how far the cancer has spread. Treats cancer successfully during the early stages. Radiation Treats cancer that has spread excessively. Chemotherapy Treats cervical cancer that returns after treatment. Targeted therapy Drug used with chemo to stop cancer growth. This method is still in process Current research and Potential Cures Doctors and scientists are working hard to find out the best ways to prevent and best treat cervical cancer. These methods will improve the functionality of the treatments method, detection and diagnosing. Improvements are being to screening and detection methods. Another innovative and also potential cure is called Immunotherapy, also known as biologic therapy. This is designed to boost the bodys natural defenses to fight the cancer. It uses materials either made by the body or in a laboratory to improve, target, or restore immune system function.5 References Types of Cervical Cancer | CTCA. (0001, January 01). Retrieved March 02, 2017, from http://www.cancercenter.com/cervical-cancer/types/ Cervical cancer statistics Canadian Cancer Society. (n.d.). Retrieved March 02, 2017, from http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/cervical/statistics/?region=on EPublications. (n.d.). Retrieved March 02, 2017, from https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/cervical-cancer.html Cervical Cancer: Latest Research. Cancer.Net. N.p., 10 June 2016. Web. 02 Mar. 2017.